In particular schizophrenia is characterized by complex symptomatology including positive symptoms, (i.e. delusions and hallucinations), and negative symptoms, (i.e. anhedonia, restricted fluency and productivity of thought and speech). In addition it is now well recognized that cognitive impairment is the third major diagnostic category of schizophrenia, characterized by loss in working memory as well as other deficits. Other symptoms include aggressiveness, depression and anxiety (Stahl, S. M. (2000) Essential Psychopharmacology. Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications. Cambridge University Press, second edition, Cambridge, UK). The different categories and the clinical features of the disorder are defined in diagnostic schemes such as DSM-IV (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition) or ICD-10 (International classification of diseases, 10th edition). Currently used medications to treat schizophrenia, bipolar mania and other psychoses, include antipsychotics both typical (D2/D3 preferring) or the more recent atypicals, which exhibit polypharmacology interacting at multiple receptors (eg., D1, D2, D3, D4, 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C, H1, M1, M2, M4, etc; Roth, B. L. et al. (2004) Magic shotguns versus magic bullets: selectively non-selective drugs for mood disorders and schizophrenia. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 3, 353-359). These antipsychotics, although relatively successful (some patients exhibit treatment resistance) at treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, are less effective at treating negative symptoms, cognitive deficits, and associated depression and anxiety, all of which lead to reduced patient quality of life and socioeconomic problems (Lieberman, J. A. et al. Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) Investigators. (2005) Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1209-1223). Furthermore, patient compliance is compromised by prevalent side effects such as weight gain, extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS), and cardiovascular effects (Lieberman, J. A. et al. Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) Investigators. (2005) Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1209-1223). In the current invention, compounds with high affinity and greater selectivity for D3 and 5-HT2A receptors are described and are proposed to treat psychoses and other diseases, with fewer associated side affects.
Dopamine, a major catecholamine neurotransmitter, is involved in the regulation of a variety of functions which include emotion, cognition, motor functions, and positive reinforcement, (Purves, D. et al. (2004) Neuroscience. Sinauer, third edition, Sunderland, Mass.). The biological activities of dopamine are mediated through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and in human, five different dopamine receptors D1-D5 have been identified, where the D2-like receptors (D2, D3 and D4) couple to the G-protein GαI (Missale, C. et al. (1998) Dopamine receptors: from structure to function. Physiol. Rev. 78, 189-225). The D3 dopamine receptor is most highly expressed in the nucleus accumbens (Gurevich, E. V., Joyce, J. N. (1999) Distribution of dopamine D3 receptor expressing neurons in the human forebrain: comparison with D2 receptor expressing neurons. Neuropsychopharmacology 20, 60-80), and is proposed to modulate the mesolimbic pathway consisting of neuronal projections from the ventral tegmental area, hippocampus and amygdala to the nucleus accumbens, which projects to the prefrontal and cingulate cortices as well as various thalamic nuclei.
The limbic circuit is thought to be important for emotional behavior and thus D3 receptor antagonists are proposed to modulate psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder (Joyce, J. N. and Millan, M. J., (2005) Dopamine D3 receptor antagonists as therapeutic agents. Drug Discovery Today, 1 July, Vol. 10, No. 13, 917-25), while these antagonists spare the D2 modulated striatal extrapyramidal system (associated with EPS induction). In addition, it has been reported that drug naive schizophrenic patients show altered levels of D3 receptor expression (Gurevich, E. V. et al. (1997) Mesolimbic dopamine D3 receptors and use of antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia. A postmortem study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54, 225-232) and dopamine release (Laruelle, M. (2000) Imaging dopamine dysregulation in schizophrenia: implication for treatment. Presented at Workshop Schizophr.: Pathol. Bases and Mech. Antipsychotic Action, Chicago), indicating that a disturbed homeostasis of dopamine plays an important role in the etiology of schizophrenic symptoms.
The neurotransmitter serotonin is implicated in several psychiatric conditions including schizophrenia (Kandel, E. R. et al. (eds.; 2000) Principles of Neural Science, 3rd edition Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, Conn.). The involvement of serotonin in psychotic disorders is suggested by multiple studies which include treatment in humans with the psychotropic drug Lysergic acid (LSD; a serotonin agonist) which can induce schizophrenia-like symptoms such as hallucinations (Leikin, J. B. et al. (1989) Clinical features and management of intoxication due to hallucinogenic drugs. Med. Toxicol. Adverse Drug Exp. 4, 324-350).
Furthermore, altered brain distribution of serotonin receptors as well as an altered serotonergic tone, have been detected in schizophrenic patients (Harrison, P. J. (1999) Neurochemical alterations in schizophrenia affecting the putative receptor targets of atypical antipsychotics. Focus on dopamine (D1, D3, D4) and 5-HT2A receptors. Br. J. Psychiatry Suppl. 38, 12-22).
In mammals serotonin exerts its biological activities through a family of 14 5-HT GPCRs (Barnes, N. M., Sharp, T. (1999) A review of central 5-HT receptors and their function. Neuropharmacology 38, 1083-1152). The 5-HT2A receptor is most prominently expressed in the prefrontal cortex and at lower levels in the basal ganglia and the hippocampus in human brain (Pompeiano, M. et al. (1994) Distribution of the serotonin 5-HT2 receptor family mRNAs: comparison between 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors. Brain Res. Mol. Brain. Res. 23, 163-178; Pazos, A., Probst, A., Palacios, J. M. (1987) Serotonin receptors in the human brain—IV. Autoradiographic mapping of serotonin-2 receptors. Neuroscience 21, 123-139), and is coupled predominantly to the G-protein Gαq (Roth, B. L. et al. (1998) 5-Hydroxytryptamine-2-family receptors (5-hydroxytryptamine-2A, 5-hydroxytryptamine-2B, 5-hydroxytryptamine-2C): where structure meets function. Pharmacol. Ther. 79, 231-257).
Genetic linkage studies of a 5-HT2A polymorphism to schizophrenia (Spurlock, G. et al. (1998) A family based association study of T102C polymorphism in 5HT2A and schizophrenia plus identification of new polymorphisms in the promoter. Mol. Psychiatry. 3, 42-49), as well as responsiveness to antipsychotic drugs (Arranz, M. J. et al. (2000) Pharmacogenetic prediction of clozapine response. Lancet 355, 1615-1616), further suggests a role for the 5-HT2A receptor both in the treatment and pathology of psychosis. In addition, dopaminergic neurotransmission appears to be under the afferent regulation of the 5-HT2A receptor (Porras, G. et al. 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C/2B receptor subtypes modulate dopamine release induced in vivo by amphetamine and morphine in both the rat nucleus accumbens and striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology 26, 311-324-2002). Overall 5-HT2A receptor antagonists are proposed to be suitable for the treatment of disorders associated with dysfunctional dopaminergic systems. Moreover, 5-HT2A receptor antagonism has been recognized as beneficial for the treatment of psychosis (reviewed in de Angelis, L. (2002) 5-HT2A antagonists in psychiatric disorders. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs 3, 106-112) and indeed is one of the defining features of so-called atypical antipsychotic drugs which are characterized by a relatively high affinity for the 5-HT2A-relative to the D2 receptor (Meltzer, H. Y. et al. (1989) Classification of typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs on the basis of dopamine D-1, D-2 and serotonin2 pKi values. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 251, 238-246).